Cadets Gavin Felch and Evan Terkanian, currently on semester abroad in Tajikistan, conducted an excursion with the American Councils Group to visit Pamir. If you are new to our Website I hope that your experience will be a productive one. The purpose of this introduction is to acquaint you with some of the features of. RTX34GJ2/lead_960.jpg?1501522240' alt='Becoming American The Chinese Experience Program One' title='Becoming American The Chinese Experience Program One' />Do I Feel Like a Chinese Person Just after lunchtime, on a blistering summer day in Washington D. C., cultural psychologist Yulia Chentsova Dutton is showing me the stars. Theyre on her computer screen at Georgetown University, and labelled disturbingly insomnia, anhedonia, headache, social withdrawal, chronic pain, and more. Each star represents a somatic or emotional sensation linked to depression. Theres the way people express depression and then theres what Chinese people do. Chentsova Duttons father was an astronomer. Anytoiso Converter 3 4 Cracked more. Shes found a way to use what he studied, the night sky, to understand her own research how culture can influence the way we feel and express emotion. If you look up, there are thousands of stars, she says. You cant possibly take them all in. So, each culture has invented schemas to remember them by, constellations. She pushes a button, and several of the depression stars are connected by a thin yellow line. This is depression according the DSM, she says, referring to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. This, she says, pushing another button, is a Chinese model of depression. The constellation changes, morphing into a different shape. New stars pop up, most having to do with the body dizziness, fatigue, loss of energy. Chentsova Dutton and her colleagues have been comparing these two constellations of Chinese and Western emotion for years, trying to explain a long standing assumption about Chinese culture. Since the 1. 98. 0s, cultural psychologists had been finding that, in a variety of empirically demonstrable ways, Chinese people tend to express their feelings, particularly psychological distress, through their bodies a process known as somatization. I had first encountered this concept while researching a story about my own family connection to the Chinese Cultural Revolution and the curious idea that psychological trauma might be able to pass from one generation to the next a scientifically tenuous notion, but one that has generated increasing study among psychologists and, more recently, geneticists. It has become this one finding from culture and mental health research that has filtered its way down to conventional practice, Chentsova Duttons collaborator, Andrew Ryder a cultural psychologist at Concordia University in Canada told me. Theres the way people express depression, which is to have a depressed mood. And then theres what Chinese people do, which is different. After I had first learned about Chinese somatization, I began peering through the older literature, but couldnt find an explanation I felt satisfied with. Ryder said a similar dissatisfaction launched his and Chentsova Duttons research in this area. Becoming American The Chinese Experience Program One' title='Becoming American The Chinese Experience Program One' />You had people writing about how the Chinese are less sophisticated people, Ryder said. In the past, people said that the Chinese dont express emotions the right way. They do it in a kind of immature way. Even after rejecting that explanation, Ryder didnt find another that was more convincing. Some researchers said that it wasnt the people who were psychologically immature, but the language. They claimed there was no vocabulary for talking about emotions. Looking back now on these papers, its almost unintentionally hilarious, Ryder said. What language did they put at the topIts English. And the person writing it is at Oxford or University of London, a very English guy. And yet, some recent work has continued to show that the Chinese exhibit comparatively more somatic symptoms than other cultures. In 2. 00. 0, Shirley Yen and her colleagues from Duke University found more somatic symptoms among Chinese students seeking counseling. In 2. 00. 1, Gordon Parker, at The University of New South Wales, compared depressed Malaysian Chinese with depressed Euro Australians. He found that the Chinese reported physical complaints more often on their questionnaires, while the Euro Australians group more frequently reported states of mind and mood. In a follow up study in Australian primary care settings, they found that the more Chinese Australians became acclimated to Australian society, the more they reported psychological rather than somatic symptoms. In 2. 00. 4, a study spearheaded by the Depression Clinical and Research Program at Massachusetts General Hospital found that 7. Chinese Americans interviewed in a primary care setting described mostly physical symptoms. The results suggest that many Chinese Americans do not consider depressed mood a symptom to report to their physicians, the authors wrote, and many are unfamiliar with depression as a treatable psychiatric disorder. Other work has yielded more complicated results. A follow up by Yen found that a Chinese student sample reported less somatic symptoms compared with Chinese American and Euro American student samples, leading the researchers to conclude it was the role as a patient, and not intrinsic Chinese ness, that led to an emphasis on the body. In 2. 00. 4, another study from Parker revealed that if Chinese patients were carefully questioned about psychological symptoms, they would offer them perhaps the Chinese simply didnt do it on their own. In 2. 00. 8, Ryder led his own study, comparing clinical outpatients from Hunan Medical University in China to ones from the Center for Addiction and Mental Health in Toronto. He found that both sets of patients had a mixture of psychological and somatic complaints, but the Canadians did significantly report more psychological ones. In follow up work using the same data from his 2. Ryder found that while the Chinese reported somatic symptoms of depression, it was the Euro Canadians who emphasized bodily symptoms when it came to anxiety. For all the cross cutting results, however, Ryder and other researchers remain convinced that the human experience of depression and really, of all mental states is culturally shaped, at least in part, and that the Chinese do tend to more often emphasize physical, rather than emotional or mental states. Maybe the Chinese are emphasizing somatic symptoms because in fact the somatic experience really is more salient to those people. The big debate is becoming, why is this happening Ryder said. I think there are two sides, and I dont think this has been fully resolved yet. One picture of it is almost a strategic answer, which is that Chinese people are choosing to talk about the somatic symptoms, and choosing not to talk about the psychological symptoms. The other approach is to say, maybe the Chinese are emphasizing somatic symptoms because in fact the somatic experience really is more salient to those people. Theyre reporting more sleep problems because theyre having more sleep problems. Theyre reporting more pain because theyre experiencing more pain. I think its a more interesting possibility. Its also a lot more controversial. My mother was born in China in 1. United States, where she met my father an American of mixed Caucasian heritage. I tend to think of myself as racially and culturally ambiguous, but as I gazed at Chentsova Duttons constellation of Chinese depression, I couldnt help but wonder Is this that how I feel my own emotions, too Do I feel like a Chinese person In 1. Minister of Health of China told Arthur Kleinman, a visiting psychiatrist and anthropologist, that there was no mental illness in China. I knew this was a crock of nonsense, Kleinman said. Surrogacy Wikipedia. This article is about a type of pregnancy. For other uses of the word surrogacy, see Surrogate. Legal regulation of surrogacy in the world. Both gainful and altruistic forms are legal  No legal regulation  Only altruistic is legal  Allowed between relatives up to second degree of consanguinity  Banned  Unregulateduncertain situation. Surrogacy is a method or agreement whereby a woman agrees to carry a pregnancy for another person or persons, who will become the newborn childs parents after birth. Intended parents may seek a surrogacy arrangement when either pregnancy is medically impossible, pregnancy risks present an unacceptable danger to the mothers health or is a same sex couples preferred method of having children. Monetary compensation may or may not be involved in these arrangements. If the surrogate receives money for the surrogacy the arrangement is considered commercial surrogacy, if she receives no compensation beyond reimbursement of medical and other reasonable expenses it is referred to as altruistic. The legality and costs of surrogacy vary widely between jurisdictions, sometimes resulting in interstate or international surrogacy arrangements. There are laws in some countries which restrict and regulate surrogacy and the consequences of surrogacy. Some couples or individuals wanting a child in this manner but who live in a jurisdiction which does not permit surrogacy in the circumstance in which they find themselves may travel to another jurisdiction which permits it. See surrogacy laws by country and fertility tourism. Types of surrogacyeditThe fertilisation of the surrogate may take place in a number of ways, each of which has implications for the genetic relationship of the resulting child with the surrogate and the future parents. There are two main types of surrogacy gestational surrogacy and traditional surrogacy. In the United States, gestational surrogacy is more common than traditional surrogacy and is considered less legally complex. Traditional surrogacyeditTraditional surrogacy also known as partial, genetic, or straight surrogacy3 involves natural4 or artificial insemination of a surrogate. If the intended fathers sperm is used in the insemination, then the resulting child is genetically related to the intended father and genetically related to the surrogate. If donor sperm is used, the resulting child is not genetically related to either intended parents but is genetically related to the surrogate. In some cases, an insemination may be performed privately by the parties without the intervention of a doctor or physician. In some jurisdictions, the commissioning parents using donor sperms need to go through an adoption process in order to have legal rights in respect to the resulting child. Many fertility centers which provide for surrogacy assist the parties through the process. Gestational surrogacyeditGestational surrogacy also known as host or full surrogacy3 was first achieved in April 1. It takes place when an embryo created by in vitro fertilization IVF technology is implanted in a surrogate, sometimes called a gestational carrier. Gestational surrogacy may take a number of forms, but in each form the resulting child is genetically unrelated to the surrogate the embryo is created using the intended fathers sperm and the intended mothers eggs. The resulting child is genetically related to both intended parents. The resulting child is genetically related to the intended father. The resulting child is genetically related to the intended mother. Such an embryo may be available when others undergoing IVF have embryos left over, which they donate to others. The resulting child is genetically unrelated to the intended parents. Surrogacy centerseditIn places where surrogacy is legal, couples may enlist the help of a third party agency to oversee the process of finding a surrogate, entering into a contract with her and recommend fertility centers for insemination, generally via IVF. These agencies can help make sure that surrogates are screened with psych evaluations and other medical tests so as to ensure healthy deliveries. They also usually facilitate all legal matters concerning the two parties intended parents and surrogate. HistoryeditHaving another woman bear a child for a couple to raise, usually with the male half of the couple as the genetic father, is referred to in antiquity. Babylonian law and custom allowed this practice, and infertile woman could use the practice to avoid a divorce, which would otherwise be inevitable. The earliest known description of surrogacy is claimed to be the servant Hagar begetting a child for the childless Sarah through her husband Abraham, described in the biblical Book of Genesis. Many developments in medicine, social customs, and legal proceedings worldwide paved the way for modern commercial surrogacy 81. In the U. S., pharmaceutical companies Schering Kahlbaum and Parke Davis started the mass production of estrogen. Harvard Medical School professor John Rock broke ground by becoming the first person to fertilize human ova outside the uterus. Researchers successfully performed the first cryopreservation of sperm. The first commercial sperm bank opened in New York, which spurred the growth of this type of business into a highly profitable venture. Louise Brown, the first test tube baby, was born in England. She was the product of the first successful IVF procedure. Basic Grammar In Use Third Edition Raymond Murphy. Although the media referred to Brown as a test tube baby, her conception actually took place in a petri dish. Michigan lawyer Noel Keane wrote the first surrogacy contract. He continued his work with surrogacy through his Infertility Center, through which he created the contract leading to the Baby M case. A woman carried the first successful gestational surrogate pregnancy. Melissa Stern, otherwise known as Baby M, was born in the U. Maxi Priest Best Of Me Rar. S. The surrogate and biological mother, Mary Beth Whitehead, refused to cede custody of Melissa to the couple with whom she made the surrogacy agreement. The courts of New Jersey found that Whitehead was the childs legal mother and declared contracts for surrogate motherhood illegal and invalid. However, the court found it in the best interest of the infant to award custody of Melissa to the childs biological father, William Stern, and his wife Elizabeth Stern, rather than to Whitehead, the surrogate mother. In California, gestational carrier Anna Johnson refused to give up the baby to intended parents Mark and Crispina Calvert. The couple sued her for custody Calvert v. Johnson, and the court upheld their parental rights. In doing so, it legally defined the true mother as the woman who, according to the surrogacy agreement, intends to create and raise a child. Latin American fertility specialists convened in Chile to discuss assisted reproduction and its ethical and legal status. The Chinese Ministry of Health banned gestational surrogacy because of the legal complications of defining true parenthood and possible refusal by surrogates to relinquish a baby. The Chinese government increased enforcement of the gestational surrogacy ban, and Chinese women began coming forth with complaints of forced abortions. Surrogacy has the potential for various kinds of clash between surrogate mothers and intended parents. For instance, the intended parents of the fetus may ask for an abortion when complications arise and the surrogate mother may oppose the abortion.